Diagnosis and Management of Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis

Publication Date: October 1, 2016
Last Updated: October 16, 2023

Determination of Etiology

1. The etiology of thyrotoxicosis should be determined. If the diagnosis is not apparent based on the clinical presentation and initial biochemical evaluation, diagnostic testing is indicated and can include, depending on available expertise and resources:
  1. measurement of thyrotropin receptor antibodies (TRAb)
  2. determination of the radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU) or
  3. measurement of thyroidal blood flow on ultrasonography.
    • An 123I or 99mTc pertechnetate scan should be obtained when the clinical presentation suggests a toxic adenoma or toxic multinodular goiter.
( S , M )
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Symptomatic Management

2. β-adrenergic blockade is recommended in all patients with symptomatic thyrotoxicosis, especially elderly patients and thyrotoxic patients with resting heart rates >90 bpm or coexistent cardiovascular disease. ( S , M )
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Graves' Disease

3. Patients with overt Graves' hyperthyroidism should be treated with any of the following modalities: Radioactive iodine (RAI) therapy, antithyroid drugs (ATDs), or thyroidectomy. ( S , M )
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RAI

4. Because RAI treatment of GD can cause a transient exacerbation of hyperthyroidism, β-adrenergic blockade should be considered even in asymptomatic patients who are at increased risk for complications due to worsening of hyperthyroidism — i.e., elderly patients and patients with co-morbidities. ( W , L )
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5. In addition to β-adrenergic blockade (see Recs. 2 & 4), pretreatment with methimazole (MMI) prior to RAI therapy for GD should be considered in patients who are at increased risk for complications due to worsening of hyperthyroidism. ( W , M )
MMI should be discontinued 2–3 days prior to RAI.
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6. In patients who are at increased risk for complications due to worsening of hyperthyroidism, resuming MMI 3–7 days after RAI administration should be considered. ( W , L )
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7. Medical therapy of any comorbid conditions should be optimized prior to RAI therapy. ( S , L )
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8. Sufficient activity of RAI should be administered in a single application, typically a mean dose of 10–15 mCi (370–555 MBq), to render the patient with GD hypothyroid. ( S , M )
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9. A pregnancy test should be obtained within 48 hours prior to treatment in any woman with childbearing potential who is to be treated with RAI. ( S , L )
  • The treating physician should obtain this test and verify a negative result prior to administering RAI.
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10. The physician administering RAI should provide written advice concerning radiation safety precautions following treatment (http://www.thyroid.org/wp-content/uploads/patients/brochures/Radioactive_iodine_brochure.pdf). If the precautions cannot be followed, alternative therapy should be selected. ( S , L )
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11. Follow-up within the first 1–2 months after RAI therapy for GD4 should include an assessment of free T, total T, and 3TSH. ( S , L )
  • Biochemical monitoring should be continued at 4–6 week intervals for 6 months, or until the patient becomes hypothyroid and is stable on thyroid hormone replacement.
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12. When hyperthyroidism due to GD persists after 6 months following RAI therapy, retreatment with RAI is suggested. In selected patients with minimal response 3 months after therapy, additional RAI may be considered. ( W , L )
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ATDs

13. Methimazole (MMI) should be used in virtually every patient who chooses ATD therapy for GD, except during the first trimester of pregnancy when propylthiouracil (PTU) is preferred, in the treatment of thyroid storm, and in patients with minor reactions to MMI who refuse RAI therapy or surgery. ( S , M )
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14. Patients should be informed of side effects of ATDs and the necessity of informing the physician promptly if they should develop pruritic rash, jaundice, acolic stools or dark urine, arthralgias, abdominal pain, nausea, fatigue, fever, or pharyngitis. ( S , L )
  • Preferably, this should be in writing.
  • Before starting ATDs and at each subsequent visit, the patient should be alerted to stop the medication immediately and call their physician when there are symptoms suggestive of agranulocytosis or hepatic injury.
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15. Prior to initiating ATD therapy for GD, the ATA suggests that patients have a baseline complete blood count, including white count with differential, and a liver profile including bilirubin and transaminases. ( W , L )
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16. A differential white blood cell count should be obtained during febrile illness and at the onset of pharyngitis in all patients taking antithyroid medication. ( S , L )
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17. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against routine monitoring of white blood cell counts in patients taking ATDs. ( N , I )
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18. Liver function and hepatocellular integrity should be assessed in patients taking MMI or PTU who experience pruritic rash, jaundice, light-colored stool or dark urine, joint pain, abdominal pain or bloating, anorexia, nausea, or fatigue. ( S , L )
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19. There is insufficient information to recommend for or against routine monitoring of liver function tests in patients taking ATD’s. ( N , I )
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20. Minor cutaneous reactions may be managed with concurrent antihistamine therapy without stopping the ATD. Persistent symptomatic minor side effects of antithyroid medication should be managed by cessation of the medication and changing to RAI or surgery, or switching to the other ATD when RAI and surgery are not options. In the case of a serious allergic reaction, prescribing the alternative drug is not recommended. ( S , L )
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21. Measurement of TRAb levels prior to stopping ATD therapy is suggested, as it aids in predicting which patients can be weaned from the medication, with normal levels indicating greater chance for remission. ( S , M )
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22. If MMI is chosen as the primary therapy for GD, the medication should be continued for approximately 12–18 months, then discontinued if the TSH and TRAb levels are normal at that time. ( S , H )
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23. If a patient with GD becomes hyperthyroid after completing a course of MMI , consideration should be given to treatment with RAI or thyroidectomy. ( W , L )
  • Continued low-dose MMI treatment for longer than 12–18 months may be considered in patients not in remission who prefer this approach.
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Iodine

24. Potassium iodide may be of benefit in select patients with hyperthyroidism due to GD, who have adverse reactions to ATDs, and have a contraindication or aversion to RAI therapy (or aversion to repeat RAI therapy) or surgery. ( N , I )
  • Treatment may be more suitable for patients with mild hyperthyroidism, or a prior history of RAI therapy.
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Thyroidectomy

25. If surgery is chosen as treatment for GD, patients should be rendered euthyroid prior to the procedure with ATD pretreatment, with or without β-adrenergic blockade. A potassium iodide-containing preparation should be given in the immediate preoperative period. ( S , L )
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26. Calcium and 25-OH-vitamin D should be assessed preoperatively and repleted if necessary, or given prophylactically. Calcitriol supplementation should be considered preoperatively in patients at increased risk for transient or permanent hypoparathyroidism. ( S , L )
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27. In exceptional circumstances, when it is not possible to render a patient with GD euthyroid prior to thyroidectomy, the need for thyroidectomy is urgent, or when the patient is allergic to ATDs, the patient should be adequately treated with β-blockade, potassium iodide, glucocorticoids, and potentially cholestyramine in the immediate preoperative period. ( S , L )
  • The surgeon and anesthesiologist should have experience in this situation.
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28. If surgery is chosen as the primary therapy for GD, near-total or total thyroidectomy is the procedure of choice. ( S , M )
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29. If surgery is chosen as the primary therapy for GD, the patient should be referred to a high-volume thyroid surgeon. ( S , M )
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30. Following thyroidectomy for GD, alternative strategies may be undertaken for management of calcium levels: serum calcium ± intact parathyroid hormone levels can be measured, and oral calcium and calcitriol supplementation administered based on these results, or prophylactic calcium with or without calcitriol prescribed empirically. ( W , L )
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31. ATD should be stopped at the time of thyroidectomy for GD, and β-adrenergic blockers should be weaned following surgery. ( S , L )
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32. Following thyroidectomy for GD, L-thyroxine should be started at a daily dose appropriate for the patient’s weight (0.8 µg/lb or 1.6 µg/kg), with elderly patients needing somewhat less, and serum TSH measured 6–8 weeks postoperatively. ( S , L )
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33. Communication among different members of the multidisciplinary team is essential, particularly during transitions of care in the pre- and postoperative settings. ( S , L )
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Thyroid Nodules in GD

34. If a thyroid nodule is discovered in a patient with GD, the nodule should be evaluated and managed according to recently published guidelines regarding thyroid nodules in euthyroid individuals. ( S , M )
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Thyroid Storm

35. The diagnosis of thyroid storm should be made clinically in a severely thyrotoxic patient with evidence of systemic decompensation. Adjunctive use of a sensitive diagnostic system should be considered. ( S , M )
  • Patients with a Burch-Wartofsky Point Scale (BWPS) of ≥45 or Japanese Thyroid Association categories of TS1 or TS2 with evidence of systemic decompensation require aggressive therapy.
  • The decision to use aggressive therapy in patients with a BWPS of 25-44 should be based on clinical judgment.
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36. A multimodality treatment approach to patients with thyroid storm should be used, including β-adrenergic blockade, antithyroid drug therapy, inorganic iodide, corticosteroid therapy, cooling with acetaminophen and cooling blankets, volume resuscitation, nutritional support, respiratory care and monitoring in an intensive care unit, as appropriate for an individual patient. ( S , L )
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Graves' Orbitopathy (GO)

37. Euthyroidism should be expeditiously achieved and maintained in hyperthyroid patients with GO or risk factors for the development of orbitopathy. ( S , M )
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38. The ATA recommends clinicians advise patients with GD to stop smoking and refer them to a structured smoking cessation program. As both firsthand and secondhand smoking increase GO risk patients exposed to secondhand smoke should be identified and advised of its negative impact. ( S , M )
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39. In nonsmoking patients with GD without apparent GO, RAI therapy (without concurrent steroids), ATDs or thyroidectomy should be considered equally acceptable therapeutic options in regard to risk of GO. ( S , M )
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40. In smoking patients with GD without apparent GO, RAI therapy, ATDs, or thyroidectomy should be considered equally acceptable therapeutic options in regard to risk of GO. ( W , L )
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41. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of prophylactic corticosteroids in smokers who receive RAI and have no evidence of GO. ( N , I )
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42. In patients with Graves’ hyperthyroidism who have mild active ophthalmopathy and no risk factors for deterioration of their eye disease, RAI therapy, ATDs and thyroidectomy should be considered equally acceptable therapeutic options. ( S , M )
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43. In the absence of any strong contraindication to GC use, the ATA suggests considering them for coverage of GD patients with mild active GO who are treated with RAI, even in the absence of risk factors for GO deterioration. ( W , L )
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44. In GD patients with mild GO who are treated with RAI the ATA recommends steroid coverage if there are concomitant risk factors for GO deterioration. ( S , M )
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45. In patients with active and moderate to severe or sight-threatening GO the ATA recommends against RAI therapy. Surgery or ATDs are preferred treatment options for GD in these patients. ( S , L )
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46. In patients with inactive GO the ATA suggests RAI therapy can be administered without steroid coverage. However, in cases of elevated risk for reactivation (high TRAb, Clinical Activity Score [CAS] ≥1 and smokers) that approach might have to be reconsidered. ( W , L )
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Children and Adolescents

General

47. Children with GD should be treated with MMI, RAI therapy, or thyroidectomy. RAI therapy should be avoided in very young children (<5 years). ( S , M )
  • RAI therapy in children is acceptable if the activity is >150 µCi/g (5.55 MBq/g) of thyroid tissue, and for children between 5 and 10 years of age if the calculated RAI administered activity is <10 mCi (<473 MBq).
  • Thyroidectomy should be chosen when definitive therapy is required, the child is too young for RAI, and surgery can be performed by a high-volume thyroid surgeon
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48. Beta adrenergic blockade is recommended for children experiencing symptoms of hyperthyroidism, especially those with heart rates >100 beats per minute. ( S , L )
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ATD

49. MMI should be used in children who are treated with ATD therapy. ( S , M )
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50. Pediatric patients and their caretakers should be informed of side effects of ATD preferably in writing, and the necessity of stopping the medication immediately and informing their physician if they develop pruritic rash, jaundice, acolic stools or dark urine, arthralgias, abdominal pain, nausea, fatigue, fever, or pharyngitis. ( S , L )
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51. Prior to initiating ATD therapy, the ATA suggests that pediatric patients have, as a baseline, complete blood cell count, including white blood cell count with differential, and a liver profile including bilirubin, transaminases, and alkaline phosphatase. ( W , L )
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52. ATDs should be stopped immediately, and white blood counts measured in children who develop fever, arthralgias, mouth sores, pharyngitis, or malaise. ( S , L )
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53. In general, PTU should not be used in children. But, if used the medication should be stopped immediately and liver function and hepatocellular integrity assessed in children who experience anorexia, pruritus, rash, jaundice, light-colored stool or dark urine, joint pain, right upper quadrant pain or abdominal bloating, nausea, or malaise. ( S , L )
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54. Persistent minor cutaneous reactions to MMI therapy in children should be managed by concurrent antihistamine treatment or cessation of the medication and changing to therapy with RAI or surgery. In the case of a serious adverse reaction to an ATD, prescribing the other ATD is not recommended. ( S , L )
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55. If MMI is chosen as the first-line treatment for GD in children, it may be tapered in those children requiring low doses after 1–2 years to determine if a spontaneous remission has occurred, or it may be continued until the child and caretakers are ready to consider definitive therapy, if needed. ( S , M )
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RAI (For Cancer Risk See Table 15)

56. Pediatric patients with GD who are not in remission following at least 1–2 years of MMI therapy should be considered for treatment with RAI or thyroidectomy. Alternatively, if children are tolerating ATD therapy, ATDs may be used for extended periods. ( S , L )
  • This approach may be especially useful for the child not considered to be a candidate for either surgery or RAI. Individuals on prolonged ATD therapy (>2 years) should be reevaluated every 6-12 months and when transitioning to adulthood.
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57. The ATA suggests that children with GD having total T4 levels of >20 ug/dL (260 nmol/L) or free T4 >5 ng/dL (60 pmol/L) who are to receive RAI therapy be pretreated with MMI and β-adrenergic blockade until total T4 and/or free T4 normalize before proceeding with RAI treatment. ( W , L )
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58. If RAI therapy is chosen as treatment for GD in children, sufficient RAI should be administered in a single dose to render the patient hypothyroid. ( S , M )
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Surgery

59. Children with GD undergoing thyroidectomy should be rendered euthyroid with the use of MMI. A potassium iodide containing preparation should be given in the immediate preoperative period. ( S , L )
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60. If surgery is chosen as therapy for GD in children, total or near-total thyroidectomy should be performed. ( S , M )
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61. Thyroidectomy in children should be performed by high-volume thyroid surgeons. ( S , M )
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TMNG or TA

62. The ATA suggests that patients with overtly TMNG or TA be treated with RAI therapy or thyroidectomy. On occasion, long-term, low-dose treatment with MMI may be appropriate. ( W , M )
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RAI

63. Because RAI treatment of TMNG or TA can cause a transient exacerbation of hyperthyroidism, β-adrenergic blockade should be considered even in asymptomatic patients who are at increased risk for complications due to worsening of hyperthyroidism — i.e. elderly patients and patients with co-morbidities. ( W , L )
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64. In addition to β-adrenergic blockade (see Recs. 2 & 63) pretreatment with MMI prior to RAI therapy for TMNG or TA should be considered in patients who are at increased risk for complications due to worsening of hyperthyroidism, including the elderly and those with cardiovascular disease or severe hyperthyroidism. ( W , L )
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65. In patients who are at increased risk for complications due to worsening of hyperthyroidism, resuming ATDs 3–7 days after RAI administration should be considered. ( W , L )
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66. Nonfunctioning nodules on radionuclide scintigraphy or nodules with suspicious ultrasound characteristics should be managed according to published guidelines regarding thyroid nodules in euthyroid individuals (http://www.thyroid.org/professionals/ata-professional-guidelines/#). ( S , M )
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67. Sufficient activity of RAI should be administered in a single application to alleviate hyperthyroidism in patients with TMNG. ( S , M )
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68. Sufficient activity of RAI should be administered in a single application to alleviate hyperthyroidism in patients with TA. ( S , M )
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69. Follow-up within the first 1–2 months after RAI therapy for TMNG4 or TA should include an assessment of free T, total T and 3TSH. Biochemical monitoring should be continued at 4–6 week intervals for 6 months, or until the patient becomes hypothyroid and is stable on thyroid hormone replacement. ( S , L )
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70. If hyperthyroidism persists beyond 6 months following RAI therapy for TMNG or TA, retreatment with RAI is suggested. In selected patients with minimal response 3 months after therapy additional RAI may be considered. ( W , L )
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Surgery

71. If surgery is chosen as treatment for TMNG or TA, patients with overt hyperthyroidism should be rendered euthyroid prior to the procedure with MMI pretreatment, with or without β-adrenergic blockade. Preoperative iodine should NOT be used in this setting. ( S , L )
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72. If surgery is chosen as treatment for TMNG, near-total or total thyroidectomy should be performed. ( S , M )
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73. Surgery for TMNG should be performed by a high-volume thyroid surgeon. ( S , M )
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74. If surgery is chosen as the treatment for TA, a thyroid ultrasound should be done to evalutate the entire thyroid gland. An ipsilateral thyroid lobectomy, or isthmusectomy if the adenoma is in the thyroid isthmus, should be performed for isolated TAs. ( S , M )
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75. The ATA suggests that surgery for TA be performed by a high-volume surgeon. ( W , M )
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76. Following thyroidectomy for TMNG, serum calcium ± iPTH levels should be measured, and oral calcium and calcitriol supplementation administered based on the results. ( W , L )
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77. MMI should be stopped at the time of surgery for TMNG or TA. β-adrenergic blockade should be slowly discontinued following surgery. ( S , L )
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78. Following thyroidectomy for TMNG, thyroid hormone replacement should be started at a dose appropriate for the patient’s weight (0.8 mcg/lb or 1.6 mcg/kg) and age, with elderly patients needing somewhat less. TSH should be measured every 1–2 months until stable, and then annually. ( S , L )
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79. Following lobectomy for TA, TSH and estimated free T4 levels should be obtained 4–6 weeks after surgery, and thyroid hormone supplementation started if there is a persistent rise in TSH above the normal range. ( S , L )
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80. RAI therapy should be used for retreatment of persistent or recurrent hyperthyroidism following inadequate surgery for TMNG or TA. ( S , L )
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ATDs

81. Long-term MMI treatment of TMNG or TA might be indicated in some elderly or otherwise ill patients with limited life-expectancy, in patients who are not good candidates for surgery or ablative therapy, and in patients who prefer this option. ( W , L )
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Ethanol or Radiofrequency Ablation

82. Alternative therapies such as ethanol or radiofrequency ablation of TA and TMNG can be considered in select patients where RAI, surgery or long-term ATD are inappropriate, contraindicated, or refused, and expertise in these procedures is available. ( N , I )
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Subclinical Hyperthyroidism and Pregnancy

Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (SH)

83. When TSH is persistently <0.1 mU/L, treatment of SH is recommended in all individuals ≥65 years of age; in patients with cardiac risk factors, heart disease or osteoporosis; in postmenopausal women who are not on estrogens or bisphosphonates; and in individuals with hyperthyroid symptoms. ( S , M )
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84. When TSH is persistently <0.1 mU/L, treatment of SH should be considered in asymptomatic individuals <65 years of age without the risk factors listed above. ( W , M )
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85. When TSH is persistently below the lower limit of normal but ≥0.1 mU/L, treatment of SH should be considered in individuals ≥65 years of age and in patients with cardiac disease, osteoporosis, or symptoms of hyperthyroidism. ( W , M )
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86. When TSH is persistently below the lower limit of normal but ≥0.1 mU/L, asymptomatic patients <65 years of age without cardiac disease or osteoporosis can be observed without further investigation of the etiology of the subnormal TSH or treatment. ( W , L )
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87. If SH is to be treated, the treatment should be based on the etiology of the thyroid dysfunction and follow the same principles as outlined for the treatment of overt hyperthyroidism. ( S , L )
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Pregnancy

88. The diagnosis of hyperthyroidism in pregnancy should be made using serum TSH values, and either total T4 and T3 with total T4 and T3 reference ranges increasing to 1.5 times above the nonpregnant range by the 2nd and 3rd trimester or free T4 and total T3 estimations with trimester-specific normal reference ranges. ( S , L )
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89. Transient hCG-mediated TSH suppression in early pregnancy should not be treated with antithyroid drug therapy. ( S , L )
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90. ATD therapy should be used for overt hyperthyroidism due to GD during pregnancy.
  • PTU should be used when ATD therapy is given during the first trimester.
  • MMI should be used when ATD therapy is started after the first trimester.
( S , L )
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91. In women who develop hyperthyroidism during their reproductive age range, the possibility and timing of future pregnancy should be discussed. Because of the risks of the hyperthyroid state on pregnancy and fetal outcome, the ATA suggests that women should postpone pregnancy until they have become euthyroid with therapy. ( S , L )
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92. The ATA suggests that women with hyperthyroidism caused by GD that require high doses of ATDs to achieve euthyroidism should be considered for definitive therapy before they become pregnant. ( W , L )
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93. Women with hyperthyroidism caused by GD who are well controlled on MMI and desire pregnancy have several options:
  • Patients could consider definitive therapy before they become pregnant.
  • Patients could switch to PTU before trying to conceive.
  • Patients could switch to PTU as soon as pregnancy is diagnosed.
  • Appropriately selected patients could withdraw from ATD therapy as soon as pregnancy is diagnosed. If ATD therapy is withdrawn, thyroid function should be assessed weekly throughout the first trimester, then monthly.
( W , L )
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94. The ATA suggests that women who are treated with ATD and who may potentially become pregnant should be instructed to perform a pregnancy test within the first days after a missed or unusually light menstrual period. ( W , L )
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95. The ATA suggests that a woman who tests positive for pregnancy according to Rec. 94 contact the physician responsible for the ATD therapy the same day to discuss future treatment options. ( W , L )
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96. The ATA suggests that the physician contacted according to Rec. 95 evaluate whether ATD withdrawal in the first trimester of pregnancy is likely to cause relapse of hyperthyroidism. ( W , L )
  • Evaluation should be based on patient records, especially the severity of GD at time of diagnosis and current disease activity, duration of ATD therapy, current ATD dose requirement, and results of recent thyroid function and TRAb testing.
  • If risk of relapse is considered low, therapy can be withdrawn, and followed by weekly thyroid function testing during the 1st trimester.
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97. The ATA suggests that women in early pregnancy who have a high risk of recurrent or worsening hyperthyroidism if ATD is withdrawn be shifted from MMI to PTU immediately after diagnosing pregnancy. ( W , L )
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98. Women taking PTU during the 1st trimester of pregnancy according to Recs. 90, 93 & 97 may be switched to MMI at the beginning of the 2nd trimester, or they may continue PTU therapy for the remaining part of pregnancy if ATD is needed. ( N , I )
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99. GD during pregnancy should be treated with the lowest possible dose of ATD needed to keep the mother's thyroid hormone levels at or slightly above the reference range for total T4 and T3 values in pregnancy (1.5 times above non-pregnant reference ranges in the 2nd and 3rd trimester), and the 3TSH4 below the reference range for pregnancy. Similarly, free T4 levels should be kept at or slightly above the upper limit of the pregnancy trimester reference range for the assay. ( S , L )
  • Thyroid function should be assessed at least monthly, and the ATD dose adjusted, as required.
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100. Pregnancy is a relative contraindication to thyroidectomy, which should be used only when medical management has been unsuccessful or ATDs cannot be used. ( S , L )
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101. When thyroidectomy is necessary for the treatment of hyperthyroidism during pregnancy, the surgery should be performed if possible during the second trimester. ( S , L )
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102. When thyroidectomy is necessary for the treatment of hyperthyroidism during pregnancy, the surgery should be performed if possible during the second trimester. ( S , L )
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103. Patients who were treated with RAI or thyroidectomy for GD prior to pregnancy should have TRAb levels measured using a sensitive assay initially during the first trimester thyroid function testing and, if elevated, again at 18–22 weeks of gestation. ( S , L )
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104. Patients receiving ATD for GD when becoming pregnant or found to have GD during pregnancy should have TRAb levels measured at initial pregnancy visit or at diagnosis using a sensitive assay and, if elevated, again at 18–22 weeks of gestation. ( S , L )
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105. Patients with elevated TRAb levels at 18–22 weeks of gestation should have TRAb remeasured in late pregnancy (weeks 30–34) to guide decisions regarding neonatal monitoring. An exception to this is a woman with an intact thyroid who is no longer in need of ATD therapy. (S, L)
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Postpartum Thyroiditis

106. In women developing thyrotoxicosis after delivery, selective diagnostic studies should be performed to distinguish postpartum destructive thyroiditis from postpartum GD. ( S , L )
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107. In women with symptomatic thyrotoxicosis from postpartum destructive thyroiditis, the judicious use of β-adrenergic blocking agents is recommended. ( S , L )
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108. In pregnant women diagnosed with hyperthyroidism due to multinodular thyroid autonomy or a solitary toxic adenoma, special care should be taken not to induce fetal hypothyroidism by ATD therapy. ( S , L )
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Other Conditions

Drug-Associated Thyrotoxicosis

109. Patients taking medications known to cause thyrotoxicosis, including interferon- α, IL-2, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, and lithium, should be monitored clinically and biochemically at 6-month intervals for the development of thyroid dysfunction. Patients who develop thyrotoxicosis should be evaluated to determine etiology and treated accordingly. ( S , L )
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Iodine-induced Hyperthyroidism

110. Routine administration of ATDs before iodinated contrast media exposure is not recommended for all patients. ( W , L )
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111. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents alone or in combination with MMI should be used to treat overt iodine-induced hyperthyroidism. ( S , L )
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Amiodarone-induced Thyrotoxicosis (AIT)

112. The ATA suggests monitoring thyroid function tests before and within the first 3 months following the initiation of amiodarone therapy, and at 3–6 month intervals thereafter. ( W , L )
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113. The decision to stop amiodarone in the setting of thyrotoxicosis should be determined on an individual basis in consultation with the treating cardiologist, based on the clinical manifestations and presence or absence of effective alternative antiarrhythmic therapy. ( S , L )
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114. In clinically stable patients with AIT, the ATA suggests measuring thyroid function tests to identify disorders associated with iodine-induced hyperthyroidism (type 1 AIT), specifically including toxic nodular disease and previously occult GD. ( S , L )
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115. MMI should be used to treat overt thyrotoxicosis in patients with proven underlying autonomous thyroid nodules or GD as the cause of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (type 1 disease), and corticosteroids should be used to treat patients with overt amiodarone-induced thyroiditis (type 2 disease). ( S , L )
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116. Combined ATD and corticosteroid therapy should be used to treat patients with overt amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis who are too unstable clinically to allow a trial of monotherapy, or who fail to respond to single modality therapy, or patients in whom the etiology of thyrotoxicosis cannot be unequivocally determined. ( S , L )
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117. Patients with AIT who are unresponsive to aggressive medical therapy with MMI and corticosteroids should undergo thyroidectomy. ( S , L )
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Destructive Thyroiditis

Subacute Thyroiditis

118. Patients with mild symptomatic subacute thyroiditis should be treated initially with β-adrenergic-blocking drugs and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents. Corticosteroids should be used instead of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents when patients fail to respond, or present initially with moderate to severe pain and/or thyrotoxic symptoms. ( S , L )
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Painless Thyroiditis

119. Patients with symptomatic thyrotoxicosis due to painless thyroiditis should be treated with β-adrenergic-blocking drugs to control symptoms. ( S , L )
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Acute Thyroiditis

120. Acute thyroiditis should be treated with antibiotics and surgical drainage as determined by clinical judgement. Beta-blockers may be used to treat symptoms of thyrotoxicosis. ( S , L )
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Unusual Causes of Thyrotoxicosis

TSH-Secreting Pituitary Tumors

121. The diagnosis of a TSH-secreting pituitary adenoma should be based on an inappropriately normal or elevated serum TSH4 level associated with elevated free T4 and total T3 concentrations, generally associated with a pituitary tumor on MRI or CT, and the absence of a family history or genetic testing consistent with resistance to thyroid hormone.

( S , L )
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122. Patients with TSH-secreting pituitary adenomas should undergo surgery performed by an experienced pituitary surgeon. ( S , L )
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Struma Ovarii

123. Patients with struma ovarii should be treated initially with surgical resection following preoperative normalization of thyroid hormones. ( S , L )
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Choriocarcinoma

124. Treatment of hyperthyroidism due to choriocarcinoma should include both MMI and treatment directed against the primary tumor. ( S , L )
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Recommendation Grading

Overview

Title

Diagnosis and Management of Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis

Authoring Organization

American Thyroid Association

Publication Month/Year

October 1, 2016

Last Updated Month/Year

November 5, 2024

Document Type

Guideline

External Publication Status

Published

Country of Publication

US

Target Patient Population

Patients with thyrotoxicosis

Target Provider Population

General and subspecialty physicians and others providing care for patients with thyrotoxicosis

Inclusion Criteria

Male, Female, Adolescent, Adult, Child, Older adult

Health Care Settings

Ambulatory

Intended Users

Nurse, nurse practitioner, physician, physician assistant

Scope

Assessment and screening, Management

Keywords

Graves' disease, hyperthyroidism, thyroidtoxicosis

Methodology

Number of Source Documents
677
Literature Search Start Date
January 1, 2011
Literature Search End Date
June 6, 2016
Description of External Review Process
While the document didn't state an external review process, Partner Medical Societies (and ATA) have a peer review process in their Methodology Manuals as requirement for endorsement determination. The document includes no dates.
Description of Public Comment Process
The document didn't state a public comment process.
Specialties Involved
Endocrinology, Family Medicine, Internal Medicine General, Pediatrics, Pediatric Endocrinology, Thyroidology, Pediatrics, Endocrinology
Description of Systematic Review
The task force reviewed the 2011 guidelines and published editorials regarding those guidelines. It then developed a revised list of the most common causes of thyrotoxicosis and the most important questions that a practitioner might pose when caring for a patient with a particular form of thyrotoxicosis or special clinical condition.
List of Questions
24 questions. Refer to full text for complete list.
Description of Study Criteria
No workplan to screen documents. No pre-determined inclusion/exclusion criteria. The process is based on consensus.
Description of Search Strategy
In this document, the writing committee examined relevant literature "using a systematic PubMed search SUPPLEMENTED with additional published materials." Literature Search does not have a beginning and end date.
Description of Evidence Analysis Methods
The draft document continued to be revised until no suggestions for further revisions were requested by any panel members. Thus, general consensus on acceptability of recommendations and manuscript text was achieved, with the fundamental understanding that not all recommendations may be feasible in all practice settings and adaptation of the guideline recommendations to individual care may be needed.
Description of Evidence Grading
Grading the quality of the evidence takes into account study design, study quality, consistency of results, and directness of the evidence. The strength of a recommendation is indicated as a strong recommendation (for or against) that applies to most patients in most circumstances with benefits of action clearly outweighing the risks and burdens (or vice versa), or a weak recommendation or a suggestion that may not be appropriate for every patient, depending on context, patient values, and preferences. The quality of the evidence is indicated as low-quality evidence, moderate-quality evidence, or high-quality evidence, based on consistency of results between studies and study design, limitations, and the directness of the evidence. In several instances, the evidence was insufficient to recommend for or against a test or a treatment, and the task force made a statement labeled “no recommendation.”
Description of Recommendation Grading
Grading the quality of the evidence takes into account study design, study quality, consistency of results, and directness of the evidence. The strength of a recommendation is indicated as a strong recommendation (for or against) that applies to most patients in most circumstances with benefits of action clearly outweighing the risks and burdens (or vice versa), or a weak recommendation or a suggestion that may not be appropriate for every patient, depending on context, patient values, and preferences. The quality of the evidence is indicated as low-quality evidence, moderate-quality evidence, or high-quality evidence, based on consistency of results between studies and study design, limitations, and the directness of the evidence. In several instances, the evidence was insufficient to recommend for or against a test or a treatment, and the task force made a statement labeled “no recommendation.”
Description of Funding Source
ATA provides funding for Guideline Development.
Company/Author Disclosures
ATA has a Conflict of Interest Policy. The task force included individuals from North America, South America, and Europe. Panel members declared whether they had any potential conflict of interest at the initial meeting of the group and periodically during the course of deliberations. There is no Table in the Clinical document. Ann Sosa discloses significant financial interests or other relationships as a Member, Data Monitoring Committee for Medullary Thyroid Cancer Registry supported by Novo Nordisk, AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, and Eli Lilly. The remaining authors disclose no significant financial interests or other relationships with commercial interests.
Percentage of Authors Reporting COI
100